Development

Developmental psychology- the branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life. The question is this: How can we distinguish between the environmental causes behavior ( the influence of parents, siblings, family, friends and all the other experiences to which a child is exposed) and heredity causes (those based on the genetic make up of an individual that influence growth and development throughout life)? This question embodies the nature- nurture issue. In this context, nature refers to heredity factors, and nurture to environmental influences.

Although the question was first posed as a nature- versus- nurture issue, developmental psychologists today agree that both nature and nurture interact to produce specific developmental patterns and outcomes. No one grows up free of environmental influences, nor does anyone develop without being affected by his or her inherited genetic makeup. The debate over the comparative influence of the two factors remains active, with different approaches and different theories of development emphasizing the environment or heredity to a greater or lesser degree.

Scientists agree that genetic factors not only provide the potential for specific behaviors or traits to emerge, but also place limitations on the emergence of such behavior or traits. For instance, heredity defines people’s general level of intelligence, setting an upper limit that- regardless of the quality of the environment- people can not exceed. Heredity also places limits on physical abilities.

Developmental psychologists also degree that in most instances environmental factors play a critical role in enabling people to reach the potential capabilities that their genetic background makes possible.

The relationship between heredity and environment is far from simple. As a consequence, development typically take an interactionist position on nature- nurture issue, suggesting that a combination of heredity and environmental factors influence developmental.

Developmental research:

o    Cross- sectional research- a research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

o    Longitudinal research- a research method that investigates behavior as participants age.

o  Sequential research- a research method that combines cross- sectional and longitudinal research by considering a number of different age groups and examining them at several points time.

Infancy and childhood

The extraordinary newborn

         The formed bones of the skull together and squashed the nose into the head, skin differences- all these features change during the first two weeks of life as the neonate takes on a more familiar appearance.

Reflexes

A neonate is born with a number of reflexes- unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli. Many of those reflexes unfold naturally as part of an infant’s ongoing maturation.

• Rooting reflex
• Sucking reflex
• Gag reflex
• Startle reflex ( a series of movements in which an infant flings out the arms, fans the fingers, and arches the back in response to a sudden noise)
• Babinski reflex ( a baby’s toes fan out when the outer edge of the sole of the foot in stoked)

Sensory abilities also develop rapidly; infants can distinguish color, depth, sound, tastes, and smelles relatively soon after birth.

After birth, physical development is rapid; children typically triple their birthweight in a year.

  Attachment the-  positive emotional bond between a child and a particular individual- marks

social development in infancy. Measured in the laboratory by means of Ainsworth strange situation, attachment later to later social and emotional adjustment.

As children become older, the nature of their social interactions with peers changes. Initially play occurs relatively independently, but it becomes increasingly cooperative.

The different child- rearing styles include authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and uninvolved.

According to Erikson, eight stages of psychosocial development involve people’s changing interactions and understanding of themselves and others. During childhood, the four stages:

o   trust- versus- mistrust( birth-1 ½)

o   autonomy- versus- shame and doubt( 1 ½ -3 years)

o   initiative-vs- guilt( 3-6)

o   industry-versus- inferiority(6-12)

Piaget’s theory suggests that cognitive development proceeds through four stages in which qualitative changes occur in thinking.

Information- processing approaches suggest that quantitative changes occur in children’s ability to organize and manipulate information about the world, such as significant increases in speed of processing, attention span, and memory. In addition, children advance in metacognition, the awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes.

Vygotsky argued that children’s cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children and others work together to solve problems.

Adolescence- the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood.

Puberty- the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11-12 for girls, 13-14 for boys.

The age at which puberty begins has implications for the way people view themselves and the way others see them.

Moral judgments during adolescence increase in sophistication, according to Kohlberg’ three level model. Levels provide an adequate description of males’ moral judgments.

Proceeding Erikson theory:

• Identity vs. confusion- adolescence
• Intimacy vs. isolation- early adulthood
• Generativity vs. stagnation middle adulthood
• Ego- integrity vs. despair- late adulthood

Adolescence suicide-  is the third leading cause of death in adolescence.

The 5 biggest problems, why teenagers kill themselves:

1. Family problems
2. Peer relationships
3. Self-esteem
4. Just to talk
5. Drugs and alcohol
   

Adulthood

From about 18 to 25 years of age, people’s strength is greatest, their reflexes are quickest. Reproductive capabilities are at their highest level.

Around age 25, the body becomes slightly less efficient and more susceptible to disease.

The principal kinds of physical, social, and intellectual changes that occur in early and middle adulthood and causes:

• Early adulthood marks the peak of physical health. Physical changes occur relatively gradually in men and women during adulthood.
• One major physical change occurs at the end of middle adulthood for women: they begin menopause, after which they are no longer fertile.
• During midlife adulthood, people typically experience a midlife transition in which the notion that life is not unending becomes more important. In some cases this may lead to a midlife crisis, although the passage into middle age typically relatively calm.
• Among the important development milestones during adulthood are marriage, family changes, and divorce.          Another important determinant of adult development is work.
  

Growing old- late adulthood

The societal stereotype of “old age” as a time of inactivity and physical and mental decline. Although the activities of people in adulthood are not all that different from those of younger people, older adults experience declines in reaction time, sensory abilities, and physical stamina.
Intellectual declines are not an inevitable part of aging. Fluid intelligence does decline with age, and long-term memory abilities are sometimes impaired. Crystallized intelligence shows slight increases with age, and short-term memory remains at about the same level.

5 Kubler- Ross stages- how we outlive death?

1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance